Bernabé Mallo
Doctor en Filosofía por la Universidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU)
Investigador
en neurofilosofía, evolución humana y origen del arte. / PhD in
Philosophy – University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)
Researcher in neurophilosophy, human evolution, and the origins of art.
A review of the discovery by Henshilwood and colleagues (2001): An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language
Introduction: when bone becomes technology
What distinguishes a modern human from their more archaic ancestors? Not only anatomy —the rounded skull, the less prominent jaw— but something more difficult to trace in the fossil record: the capacity to plan, to execute complex technical sequences, to create tools that do not imitate the shape of stone but exploit the properties of other materials. For decades, archaeologists have considered the manufacture of bone tools to be a key marker of modern behavior. And for decades, it was thought that this behavior had emerged in Europe about 40,000 years ago, as part of the "symbolic explosion" of the Upper Paleolithic (Henshilwood et al., 2001).
A discovery published in 2001 in the Journal of Human Evolution by Christopher Henshilwood and an international team of researchers radically changed this narrative (Henshilwood et al., 2001). In Blombos Cave, on the southern coast of South Africa, they recovered 28 bone tools from Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels dating to about 70,000 years ago. This is the largest collection of formal bone tools found at a single African MSA site, and its existence demonstrates that sophisticated bone technology is not a European invention, but a much earlier African innovation (Henshilwood et al., 2001).
These tools, which include awls and projectile points, were manufactured following a sequence of deliberate technical choices: blank selection, shaping using various techniques, and final finishing (Henshilwood et al., 2001). Their presence, together with other finds at the same site —engraved ochre, bifacial stone points, and a diversified subsistence economy— is "turning the tide in favour of models positing behavioural modernity in Africa at a time far earlier than previously accepted" (Henshilwood et al., 2001, p. 631).
The Blombos discovery: 28 tools that rewrite history
Between 1992 and 2000, excavations at Blombos Cave —a rock shelter overlooking the Indian Ocean on the Western Cape of South Africa— brought to light 28 bone tools, recovered in situ from MSA levels dating to about 70,000 years ago (Henshilwood et al., 2001). This is the largest collection of formal bone tools found at a single African MSA site, and its detailed study has revealed a degree of technical sophistication that contradicts traditional models of the origin of modern behavior.
Microscopic and morphometric analyses show that these tools were not manufactured casually or improvisationally. They follow a structured production sequence that includes: (1) the production of a rough blank; (2) the application of various shaping methods; and (3) the final finishing of the artifact to produce awls and projectile points (Henshilwood et al., 2001). The manufacturing techniques are comparable to those described for "formal" bone tools from other contexts, and their planning and execution are consistent with those of the late Holocene, indicating a continuity in cognitive and technical capacity over tens of thousands of years (Henshilwood et al., 2001).
The assemblage includes tools that were probably used for working hides (the awls) and others that may have served as hunting weapons (the projectile points). The presence of these tools in the MSA is particularly notable because, as the authors note, "bone tools are rarely found in African Middle or Later Stone Age sites before ca. 25 ka" (Henshilwood et al., 2001, p. 631). Their scarcity had been cited as evidence of a lack of modern technological or cognitive capacities before ca. 50 ka. The Blombos discovery demonstrates that this scarcity is not due to an incapacity, but probably to preservation biases and limited archaeological research in Africa (Henshilwood et al., 2001).
The context: more than tools, symbolic behavior
The Blombos bone tools do not appear in isolation. They are part of a body of evidence pointing to fully modern behavior in the African MSA. Alongside the bone tools, researchers have documented:
Deliberate engravings on ochre, with abstract geometric patterns, demonstrating the capacity to create and share symbols (Henshilwood et al., 2002).
Bifacial stone points crafted with great skill, suggesting a high degree of planning and technical expertise.
Sophisticated subsistence strategies, including the hunting of terrestrial and marine animals, fishing, and shellfish collection, indicating a diversified exploitation of the environment and a deep knowledge of available resources.
This combination of evidence —advanced bone technology, symbolism, complex lithic artifacts, and an adaptive economy— is exactly the kind of "package" of behaviors that archaeologists have traditionally used to identify "modernity" in the archaeological record. And at Blombos, it appears 35,000 years earlier than it is documented in Europe (Henshilwood et al., 2001).
As Henshilwood himself noted in an interview at the time, "the real implications are that there was modern human behavior in Africa about 35,000 years before Europe" . Or, as another team member, Curtis Marean, put it: "Once again, in terms of human evolution, we're seeing that Africa was precocious: bipedal hominids evolved in Africa; the first real increase in brain size happened in Africa; and now, we're beginning to see that the last great advance, the development of modern behavior, also happened in Africa" .
Why are these tools important?
The importance of the Blombos discovery transcends the antiquity of the tools. Its significance lies in what it reveals about the human mind and the origin of technical and symbolic capacity.
1. They dismantle the myth of the European "symbolic explosion"
For a long time, archaeologists argued that modern behavior emerged suddenly and explosively in Europe about 40,000 years ago, in what was called the "symbolic explosion" of the Upper Paleolithic (Henshilwood et al., 2001). The Blombos bone tools, together with the ochre engravings and other finds, demonstrate that this narrative is wrong. Advanced bone technology and symbolic behavior did not suddenly emerge in Eurasia; they have much deeper roots in Africa, where anatomically modern humans had existed for tens of thousands of years.
2. They evidence the presence of syntactic language
The manufacture of formal bone tools —which require a sequence of technical decisions, long-term planning, and the transmission of knowledge— is indirect evidence for the existence of fully syntactic language (Henshilwood et al., 2001). To transmit manufacturing techniques from one generation to the next, and to coordinate hunting and resource processing activities, MSA human groups needed a complex communication system, comparable to our own.
3. They demonstrate a cultural tradition
The presence of 28 bone tools at the same site, manufactured following the same technical sequences and for the same purposes, suggests that we are not dealing with isolated acts, but with an established cultural tradition. Technical knowledge was transmitted and refined over generations. This cultural continuity, together with the evidence of symbolism, indicates that MSA groups already possessed a social and cognitive complexity comparable to that of modern populations.
4. They broaden our understanding of the origin of art and technology
The Blombos bone tools are not "art" in the sense of a painting or a sculpture. But they are a manifestation of the same technical and symbolic capacity that would later give rise to figurative art. The manufacture of specialized tools from materials other than stone requires an understanding of material properties, forward planning, and precise hand control. These same capacities would, later, allow humans to engrave symbols on ochre or paint figures on cave walls.
Connection with research on the origin of art (S/Y/C)
The Blombos discovery resonates deeply with the research we have been developing on the S/Y/C model of neuronal functioning and the Law of Biological Coherence (Mallo, 2023, 2025, 2026a, 2026b). These tools, made by anatomically modern humans 70,000 years ago, are an early manifestation of the technical and symbolic capacity that defines our species, and can be understood in light of our three dimensions.
The S (Survival) dimension manifests in the practical function of these tools: awls for working hides, projectile points for hunting. Bone technology is not a disinterested luxury; it is a tool of adaptation that improves the ability of human groups to obtain resources, process food, make clothing, and ultimately survive. The planning and execution of these tools reflects an investment of time and effort that only makes sense within a long-term survival strategy.
The Y (Symbolon) dimension emerges in the context of these tools. They are not merely useful objects; their manufacture following standardized sequences, their transmission as cultural knowledge, and their association with other symbolic artifacts (such as the ochre engravings) indicate that they were part of a system of shared meanings. Symbolon —the act of recognition through shared codes— is not limited to language or art; it also manifests in technology, in the transmission of technical knowledge, in the group identity constructed around shared practices.
The C (Wholeness) dimension manifests in the very structure of the tools: they are finished objects, which have passed through a complete production sequence to reach their final form. This drive toward totality —the need to complete a process, to achieve a result— is the same that guides the artist when finishing a work. Technology and art share, in this sense, a common root: the need to close forms, to give coherence to matter.
Surgical Philosophy invites us to make a precise analytical cut in these findings. It is not about seeing Blombos as the "origin" of modern technology and stopping there. It is about understanding that these tools are part of a continuous process that extends to the present day. What we see at Blombos is the emergence of a capacity —the technical and symbolic capacity— that will later develop, diversify, and become more complex over tens of thousands of years.
Implications for future research
The discovery by Henshilwood and colleagues, together with other discoveries at Blombos and at other African sites (such as the bone tools from Katanda, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, or the bone points from Sibudu, in South Africa), has transformed our understanding of the origin of modern behavior. But it also opens new questions:
What other technological and symbolic innovations existed in the MSA? The presence of formal bone tools at Blombos suggests that MSA human groups already possessed a much wider technical repertoire than previously thought. What other materials did they use? What other techniques had they developed?
Why are bone tools so rare in the MSA record? If MSA humans already had the capacity to manufacture them, why do they appear in so few sites? Is it due to preservation biases (bone preserves less well than stone), to lower intensity of use, or to cultural factors?
What is the relationship between bone technology and art? The bone tools and ochre engravings appear at the same site and in the same levels. Did they share the same creators? Were they part of the same "package" of innovations? Are technical capacity and symbolic capacity related, or are they independent?
What role did these innovations play in the expansion of modern humans out of Africa? The accumulation of technological and symbolic innovations in the African MSA may have provided modern humans with an adaptive advantage that allowed them to successfully expand to other continents. But when exactly did this expansion occur, and what role did these innovations play?
Final considerations: bone as testimony to the modern mind
The discovery of the Blombos bone tools is much more than an archaeological news item. It is a window into the minds of our ancestors. It shows that, 70,000 years ago, in a cave by the sea, groups of anatomically modern humans already possessed the capacity to plan, to execute complex technical sequences, to transmit knowledge over generations, and to create artifacts that went beyond immediate need.
These tools are the testimony of a modern mind, a mind that could already think abstractly, that could already coordinate complex actions, that could already transform the world through technology. And that capacity, which is still alive today in every technology, in every work of art, in every tool we make, was not born in the caves of Eurasia 40,000 years ago. It was born in Africa, much earlier, and has been with us ever since.
As Henshilwood's team wrote in their 2001 article, the Blombos evidence, "taken together with recent finds from Klasies River, Katanda and other African Middle Stone Age sites [...] is turning the tide in favour of models positing behavioural modernity in Africa at a time far earlier than previously accepted" (Henshilwood et al., 2001, p. 631). Today we can add: and that modernity, which already existed 70,000 years ago, continues to define who we are.
References
Henshilwood, C. S., d'Errico, F., Marean, C. W., Milo, R. G., & Yates, R. (2001). An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: Implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language. Journal of Human Evolution, 41(6), 631–678. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2001.0515
Henshilwood, C. S., d'Errico, F., Yates, R., Jacobs, Z., Tribolo, C., Duller, G. A. T., Mercier, N., Sealy, J. C., Valladas, H., Watts, I., & Wintle, A. G. (2002). Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa. Science, 295(5558), 1278–1280. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1067575
Mallo, B. (2023). La construcción neuro-simbólica. Una aproximación al funcionamiento del cerebro desde una perspectiva multidisciplinar [Doctoral thesis, University of the Basque Country - Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea]. ADDI Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/10810/62701
Mallo, B. (2025). Arte y biología: Una aproximación neurofilosófica al origen de la experiencia estética. https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0E8Y5WZMK
Mallo, B. (2025). Art and biology: A neurophilosophical approach to the origin of aesthetic experience. https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0E8Y6C2XN
Mallo, B. (2026a). De la filosofía quirúrgica a la ley de coherencia biológica S/Y/C: Hacia una investigación sobre el origen del arte en la especie Homo. https://isbn.bibna.gub.uy/catalogo.php?mode=detalle&nt=57196
Mallo, B. (2026a). De la filosofía quirúrgica a la ley de coherencia biológica S/Y/C: Hacia una investigación sobre el origen del arte en la especie Homo [Kindle edition]. https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0GYGTJD5C
Mallo, B. (2026b). From surgical philosophy to the law of biological coherence S/Y/C: Toward a study of the origin of art in the Homo lineage. https://isbn.bibna.gub.uy/catalogo.php?mode=detalle&nt=57197
Autor / Author
Bernabé Mallo
Doctor en Filosofía – Universidad del País Vasco / Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU)
Investigador independiente en neurofilosofía, evolución humana y origen del arte.
Bernabé Mallo
PhD in Philosophy – University of the Basque Country / Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU)
Independent researcher in neurophilosophy, human evolution, and the origin of art.
Enlaces / Links
Página de autor Amazon / Amazon Author Page: https://www.amazon.com/author/bernabemallo
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9002-9728
Plataforma EHUenRed / Link EHUenRed: https://www.ehu.eus/es/web/masterrak-eta-graduondokoak/red-latinoamericana-de-posgrados
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Publicaciones y proyectos en desarrollo / Publications and projects:
https://www.amazon.com/author/bernabemallo
https://ehuenred.theglocal.network/ideas/el-origen-del-arte-en-el-cerebro-de-makapansgat-al-moma-del-primate-al-sapiens